Log in
Guide · 469 topics

Biology: Class Topics

Concise topic reviews following the medical school curriculum: definitions, key facts, morphology, and common questions for classes and exams. Find the topic matching your syllabus.

Additional Topics 29

FertilizationCytology and Cell BiologyEvolutionary BiologyChromosome Trisomy SyndromesMitosis and Sister ChromatidsChloroplasts and PlastidsVariability in GeneticsFragile X SyndromeGenetics of Blood Groups and Rh FactorMendel's Laws and GeneticsProtein Biosynthesis and the Genetic CodeGenetics of Growth and DevelopmentObjects of Genetic ResearchPhenotype and GenotypeMethods of Genetic DiagnosticsThe Role of Genetics in MedicinePolymerismHair GeneticsMuscle GeneticsGenetics of MetabolismMosaicismEye Color GeneticsCell GeneticsHereditary DiseasesClinical GeneticsDNA in CytologyCell BiophysicsEmbryologyReproductive Genetics

Basics of Cytology 2

History of Cell StudyCell Research Methods

Biology as the Science of Life, Introduction to Biology 4

Biology as a ScienceProperties of Living OrganismsSystems Approach in BiologyLevels of Organization of Living Matter

Metabolism and Energy Transformation 8

MetabolismComparative Characteristics of Plant and Animal CellsTypes of Nutrition in OrganismsLight-Dependent Phase of PhotosynthesisLight-Independent Phase of PhotosynthesisChemosynthesisGlycolysis and FermentationAerobic Respiration

Chemical composition of the cell 12

Cell MorphologyChemical Composition of the CellWater and Mineral Salts in the CellAmino acidsProteinsEnzymesLipidsCarbohydratesStructure of NucleotidesDNAAcidum desoxyribonucleicumRNAAcidum ribonucleicumATP and MononucleotidesAcidum adenosintriphosphoricum

Modes and Forms of Reproduction 3

Asexual ReproductionReproductio asexualisSexual ReproductionReproductio sexualisParthenogenesisParthenogenesis

Cell Division 10

PhotosynthesisCell CycleInterphaseMitosisMitosisCell PopulationsPathology of MitosisAmitosisAmitosisEndomitosis and PolyploidyEndomitosisRegulation of the Cell CycleApoptosisApoptosis

Gametogenesis 9

Reproduction of OrganismsSpermatogenesisSpermatogenesisOogenesisOogenesisStructure of the Egg CellOvumZones of GametogenesisMeiosisMeiosisMitosis and Its PhasesMitosisPrimordial Germ CellsAnaphase of Mitosis and Meiosis

Chromosomes (Chromatin) 7

Human GenomeChromosome structureTelomeres and TelomeraseChemical Composition and Proteins of ChromosomesLevels of Chromatin CompactionHeterochromatin and EuchromatinSpecial Types of Chromosomes

Cell is the elementary unit of life 52

Bioenergetics and Oxidation-Reduction ReactionsViruses: Non-Cellular Forms of LifeViraVirion and Its ComponentsVirus classificationViral ReplicationBacteriophagesBacteriophagaHIV InfectionHuman immunodeficiency virusProkaryotesProkaryotaGenetic Apparatus of BacteriaNucleoidBacterial cell wallSurface Structures and Organelles of BacteriaReproduction and Genetic Recombination in BacteriaSpore Formation in BacteriaEukaryotesEukaryotaCytoplasmic MembranePlasmalemmaGlycocalyx and Submembrane ComplexIntercellular JunctionsAnchoring and Tight JunctionsGap junctions and plasmodesmataMacula communicansPathology of intercellular junctionsPemphigusTransport of Substances Across the MembranePassive transport and osmosisIon channels and aquaporinsActive transportVesicular transportPhagocytosis and pinocytosisCytoplasm and its componentsCytoplasmaEndoplasmic reticulumReticulum endoplasmaticumGolgi apparatusComplexus GolgiLysosomesLysosomaPeroxisomes and vacuolesCytoskeletonCilia and basal bodiesCell inclusionsCell nucleusNucleusNuclear envelope and pore complexGenetic apparatus of the cellChromosomesChromosomaRibosome biosynthesisCell cycle and cellular agingPlant and animal cellsProtein metabolism and the ubiquitin-proteasome systemExocytosis and transcytosisReceptor function of the cell membraneCytoplasm and hyaloplasmCytoplasmaPlastidsRibosomesMicrofilaments and specialized organellesPeroxisomesMitochondriaMitochondriaPathologies of cellular componentsCell nucleusNucleus

Variability and its forms 8

RNA interferenceModification variabilityCombinative variabilityMutational variabilityGene mutationsChromosomal mutationsGenomic mutationsMutagenic factors

Inheritance patterns (nuclear genes) 16

Basic concepts and definitions in geneticsMendel's first lawLaw of purity of gametesComplete dominanceMendel's third lawRhesus factor inheritanceTest crossInteraction of allelic genesBlood group inheritanceIncomplete dominanceInteraction of non-allelic genesMultiple allelismPleiotropyChromosomal theory of heredityGenetics of sexSex-linked inheritance

Molecular Genetics 17

Penetrance and expressivityEvidence for the role of nucleic acidsStructure of DNAAcidum desoxyribonucleicumTypes and functions of RNAAcidum ribonucleicumDNA replicationDNA repairGenetic codeTranscriptionRNA processingRibosomes and translationTranscription factorsHormonal regulation of gene expressionOperonsEpigenetics and gene regulation in eukaryotesEpigeneticsChromatin remodelingGenomic imprinting

Regularities of Individual Development 15

History of embryology developmentEmbryology and geneticsPrinciples of developmental geneticsProperties of ontogenyCellular mechanisms of ontogenyGenetic mechanisms of cell differentiationEmbryonic inductionGenetic control of developmentGrowth and morphogenesisVon Baer's laws of embryology (Law of embryonic resemblance)Genetic mechanisms of body plan formationMaternal effect genes and zygotic genesHomeotic genesMechanisms of morphogenesisModern reproductive technologies

Periodization of Ontogenesis 13

Ontogeny and its periodsPostembryonic developmentClassification of ovaInsemination and fertilizationCleavageGastrulationHistogenesis and organogenesisProvisional OrgansHuman embryonic developmentDevelopment of twinsDisorders of embryonic developmentTORCH infectionsIn vitro fertilization

Human Postnatal Development 5

Homology of early development genesHuman postnatal developmentAging of the organismProgeriaProgeriaGenetic theories of aging

Medical genetics 34

Chemical mutagensHereditary human diseasesMonogenic diseasesPhenylketonuriaPhenylketonuriaHemoglobinopathiesChromosomal diseasesKlinefelter syndromeSyndromum KlinefelterTurner syndromeSyndromum TurnerTriple X syndromeDown syndromeMorbus DownPatau syndromeSyndromum PatauCri-du-chat syndromeSyndromum cri-du-chatMultifactorial diseasesGenetic diseases of somatic cellsMitochondrial diseasesMethods of human geneticsGenealogical methodTwin methodCytogenetic methodPopulation-statistical methodMolecular genetic methodPrenatal diagnosisGenetic engineeringStem cellsGene therapyGenetic basis of carcinogenesisGenomicsImmunogeneticsPharmacogeneticsFundamentals of heredityMolecular genetics and protein biosynthesisVariabilityDNA structure and replicationRecessive trait

Regeneration 6

AgingSenescentiaDeathMorsPhysiological regenerationRegeneratioReparative regenerationRegeneration in vertebrates and humansPathological regeneration

Transplantation 7

Factors and disorders of regenerationTypes of transplantationTransplantation ImmunityStem cells and explantationOntogenesisRegenerationProspects for the development of transplantology

Introduction to General Parasitology 12

Parasitism as a phenomenonMechanisms of transmission and routes of parasite entryAdaptations to parasitismLife cycles of parasitesImmune response to parasitic infectionsPathogenic effect of parasites on the hostMechanisms of immune evasion by parasitesToxoplasmaToxoplasma gondiiAfrican trypanosomesTrypanosoma bruceiGiardiaLamblia intestinalisMalaria parasitePlasmodiumNatural focality of diseases

Medical Protozoology 5

TrichomonadsTrichomonasAfrican trypanosomiasisTrypanosoma bruceiAmerican trypanosomiasisTrypanosoma cruziLeishmaniaLeishmaniaBalantidiumBalantidium coli

History of Views on Evolutionary Theory 3

History of evolutionary theoryConcept of speciesSpeciesCriteria of species

Population as the elementary unit of evolution 9

Population as a unit of evolutionEcological characteristics of a populationDemographic indicators of a populationSmall populations: demes and isolatesGenetic characteristics of a populationGenetic polymorphismAbnormal hemoglobinsGlucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase polymorphismHardy-Weinberg law

Elementary Evolutionary Factors 9

Elementary evolutionary factorsMutational processGene recombinationGenetic imprintingFounder effectPopulation wavesIsolationGenetic driftMedical consequences of isolation and inbreeding

Medical Arachnoentomology 27

Medical arachnoentomologyPhylum ArthropodaArthropodaSubphylum BranchiataBranchiataClass CrustaceaCrustaceaSubphylum ChelicerataChelicerataClass ArachnidaArachnidaSuperorder AcarinaAcarinaAcariform mitesAcariformesParasitiform mitesParasitiformesArgasid ticksArgasidaeIxodid ticksIxodidaeClass InsectaInsectaCockroachesBlattoideaBed bugsCimicidaeSucking liceAnopluraFleasAphanipteraMosquitoesCulicidaeSandfliesPhlebotominaeHorsefliesTabanidaeFliesMuscidaeBotfliesOestridaeGeneral characteristics of insectsInsectaCockroachesBlattoideaTrue bugsHeteropteraDipteransDipteraMosquitoesCulicidaeHouse flies and blowfliesMuscidae

Natural Selection 2

Natural selectionNatural selection in human populations

Forms of natural selection 5

Forms of natural selectionStabilizing selectionDirectional selectionDisruptive selectionNatural selection of ABO blood groups

Significance of Evolutionary Factors for Medicine 1

Significance of evolutionary factors for medicine

Macroevolution 3

SpeciationMacroevolutionPhylogenesis

Speciation 5

Genetic loadDivergent speciationAllopatric speciationSympatric speciationEvolutionary cytogenetics of hominids

Main Pathways and Directions of Organic Evolution 2

Directions of evolutionBiological progress

Medical Helminthology 37

Medical helminthology: general characteristicsLiver flukeFasciola hepaticaParagonimiasisParagonimus westermaniCat liver flukeOpisthorchis felineusChinese liver flukeClonorchis sinensisSchistosomesSchistosomaPork tapewormTaenia soliumEchinococcosisEchinococcusHymenolepiasisHymenolepis nanaLarge human roundwormAscaris lumbricoidesAncylostomiasisAncylostomatidaeStrongyloidiasisStrongyloides stercoralisPinwormEnterobius vermicularisWhipwormTrichocephalus trichiurusTrichinellaTrichinella spiralisFilariasis: Wuchereriasis and BrugiasisWuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayiLoiasisLoa loaOnchocerciasisOnchocerca volvulusFlukesTrematodaLancet liver flukeDicrocoelium lanceatumLung flukeParagonimus westermaniCat liver flukeOpisthorchis felineusTapewormsCestodaBroad tapewormDiphyllobothrium latumBeef tapewormTaeniarhynchus saginatusFox tapewormEchinococcus multilocularisRoundwormsNematodaThreadwormStrongyloides stercoralisEnterobiasisEnterobius vermicularisFilariaeFilariataMedical nematologyNematodaHookwormsAncylostomatidaePinwormEnterobius vermicularisWhipwormTrichuris trichiuraGuineawormDracunculus medinensisBancroft's filariaWuchereria bancroftiBrugiasisBrugia

Pathways of Biological Progress 3

Severtsov's directions of evolutionParallel evolutionBiological regression

Epigenetics and Evolution 8

Stages in the evolution of the organic worldEpigenetic theory of evolutionDNA methylation in epigeneticsParamutation phenomenonPopulation geneticsNatural selection and adaptationsSpeciation and macroevolutionEpigenetics and ontogeny

Phylogeny of the Vertebrate Nervous System 5

Phylogeny of the chordate nervous systemNeural tube closure defectsEmbryogenesis of the brainTypes of vertebrate brainsBrain developmental disorders

General patterns of organismal phylogeny 8

Evolutionary morphologyAnalagous and homologous organsPhylogenetic differentiations and integrationsPhylogenetic transformations of organ functionsOntogenetic and phylogenetic correlationsConvergent similarity of organsOrgan reduction, vestigial structures and atavismsPhyloembryogenesis

Human Origin 3

Human originAnthropogenesisEvidence of human animal ancestrySystematic position of humansHomo sapiens

Phylogeny of the vertebrate urogenital system 10

Phylogeny of the vertebrate excretory systemDevelopmental anomalies of the urinary systemRelationship between the excretory and reproductive systems in vertebratesTypes of vertebrate uteriTypes of placentasDevelopmental anomalies of the female reproductive systemDevelopmental anomalies of the male reproductive systemPhylogeny of the vertebrate nervous systemGeneral patterns of organ system phylogenyPhylogeny of the vertebrate circulatory system

Paleontological evidence of human origin 10

Structural features of humans associated with bipedalismHominid triadEvolution of higher primatesStages of human evolutionAustralopithecinesAustralopithecusHandy manHomo habilisArchanthropinesHomo erectusPaleoanthropinesHomo neanderthalensisNeoanthropinesHomo sapiensSocio-cultural factors in human evolution

Phylogeny of the vertebrate circulatory system 10

Phylogeny of the chordate circulatory system. AmphioxusCephalochordataCirculatory system of fishPiscesCirculatory system of amphibiansAmphibiaCirculatory system of reptilesReptiliaCirculatory system of birdsAvesCirculatory system of mammalsMammaliaHuman heart embryogenesisCongenital heart defectsDevelopment and anomalies of the arterial systemVenous system of mammals and its developmental defects

Factors of Anthropogenesis 4

Factors of anthropogenesisGenetic foundations of human evolutionStages of anthropogenesisHuman races and adaptive types

Doctrine of the Biosphere 4

Doctrine of the biosphereEarth's spheresEvolution of the biosphereBiogeochemical cycles in the biosphere

Modern Humans and Evolution (Neanthropines) 6

Distinctive features of humansHomo sapiensMolecular anthropogeneticsHuman dispersalHuman racesGenetics of races and modern human evolutionAdaptive ecological types of humans

Human Ecology 7

Human ecologyRelationship between human health and the environmentImpact of anthropogenic factors on the environment and urbanizationBiosphere and humanityPopulation ecologyEcosystemEcological factors

General Ecology 14

Subject of ecologyFactorial ecology and ecological factorsRegularities of ecological factor actionRisk factors and their interactionAdaptations of organisms to the environmentEcosystem and structure of the biosphereFood chains and energy flowEcological successionsAgroecosystemsBiotic factors and interactionsPopulation ecologyDynamics and types of population growthInteraction between humans and the biosphereAir pollution

Blog articles: Biology

1 article
Biology

Mitosis and meiosis: comparison, differences, and table

How mitosis differs from meiosis: comparative characteristics, phases, number of divisions, and daughter cells in a table.

April 11, 20263 min

Master the entire topic in the "Biology" course

This is a summary. The course covers everything tested in classes and exams.

  • 3,793 pages of study guides across all topics
  • Assignments and quizzes after every topic — just like in a colloquium
  • AI tutor answers questions on the topic anytime
  • 129 video lessons on the subject
Open full reviewSubject curriculumfrom 599 ₽ per month