Hypotheses of origin and species unity
Two main concepts of racial origin have historically formed in anthropology. The polycentrism hypothesis suggests that anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) formed simultaneously in several regions of the planet, evolving from various ancestral forms—paleoanthropids. In contrast, the monocentrism hypothesis states that all of humanity has a single origin center and descends from a common ancestor, after which humans widely spread across the Earth. Today, the monocentric theory receives the greatest confirmation in the scientific world.
Compromise approaches also existed, allowing for the division of evolutionary lineages at various stages of anthropogenesis. For example, it was suggested that at the paleoanthropid stage, a branch could have separated that gave rise to Mongoloids and Australoids. Later, at the neoanthropid stage, the division into Caucasoids and Negroids occurred (these groups are considered closer to each other).
Regardless of their origins, all modern humans belong to the same biological species. The overall level of mental and physical development is absolutely identical across representatives of any racial groups.
Genetics and mechanisms of racial formation
The process of racial formation began rather late and proceeded in parallel in different parts of the globe. The origin of modern groups is mosaic in nature: races are large-scale populations united not only by a common origin, but also by the long-term impact of specific climatic and geographical factors.
The genetic diversity of humanity is distributed in an interesting way. Purely racial differences account for only 8% of genetic variations. At the same time, over 80% of diversity is caused by individual differences between people. From this follows a crucial conclusion: the genetic difference between two representatives of the same race can be significantly greater than between people belonging to different races.
Principles of anthropological type classification
Racial systematics traditionally relies on the works of Soviet scientist N.N. Cheboksarov (1951). Within his system, major races and 22 minor races (anthropological types) are distinguished.
The division into major races is based on a complex of external features:
- Head morphometry: the ratio of facial and cerebral skull dimensions is taken into account.
- Facial structure: the shape of cheekbones, jaw protrusion, eye fissure shape, nose shape, and tooth characteristics are evaluated.
- Pigmentation: skin color, iris color (36 shades are distinguished), and hair color.
- Hair coverage: the shape, stiffness, degree of waviness, and color of the hair are analyzed (there are 30 colors), as well as the development of tertiary hair coverage (growth intensity of the beard, mustache, and body hair).
- Dermatoglyphics: the specifics of skin patterns on palms and fingertips.
Characteristics of major races
Traditional anthropology distinguishes three main groups, but according to N.N. Cheboksarov's classification, a fourth is added—the Australoid race.
| Sign | Caucasoid | Negroid | Mongoloid | Australoid |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Habitat / Distribution range | Formed in Europe and Western Asia. Inhabit everywhere | Africa, equatorial belt of the Old World | Predominantly Asia | — |
| Skin | Pale | Dark | Darker than Caucasoids, but lighter than Negroids | Dark |
| Hair | Often light, wavy, or straight | Black, tightly curled | Black, coarse, and straight | Not tightly curled |
| Face | Narrow, jaws do not protrude forward (orthognathism) | Narrow, jaws protrude sharply (prognathism) | Wide, flattened | — |
| Nose and lips | Protruding nose, lips usually thin | Wide nose, thick lips | — | — |
| Eyes | Horizontal, upper eyelid fold absent or weak | Brown, wide open | Brown, narrow, slanted. Epicanthus present | — |
| Tertiary hair coverage | Good beard and mustache growth | Beard and mustache grow poorly | — | Well developed (like Caucasoids) |
Features of the Australoid race: Despite dark skin, phenotypically they share traits with Caucasoids (active beard and mustache growth, non-curly hair). However, by biological affinity (blood composition, tooth structure, and dermatoglyphics), they are closer to Mongoloids.
To remember the specifics of the Australoid race, keep the "paradox" in mind: outwardly they resemble a mix of Negroids (dark skin) and Caucasoids (beard, non-curly hair), but by blood and fingerprint patterns, they are relatives of Mongoloids.
Class and exam questions
Is it true that representatives of different races differ significantly genetically?
No, racial traits account for only 8% of human genetic diversity. Differences between two individuals within the same race often exceed the difference between representatives of different races (individual differences account for over 80% of the genome).
What is the essence of the monocentric hypothesis?
This hypothesis states that all humans descended from a single common ancestor in a single origin center, after which they populated the Earth. Today it receives the greatest scientific confirmation.
What are prognathism and orthognathism?
Prognathism is a strong forward protrusion of the jaw part of the face, characteristic of the Negroid race. Orthognathism is a straight facial profile without protruding jaws, typical of Caucasoids.
What is epicanthus?
This is a special skin fold that covers the upper eyelid and the inner corner of the eye. It is a characteristic feature of representatives of the Mongoloid race.
What else to study on this topic
- Characteristics of 22 minor races (anthropological types) according to N.N. Cheboksaryov.
- Features of dermatoglyphics (skin ridge patterns) in various human populations.
- Head morphometry: indices and their significance in anthropology.
- Compromise concepts of anthropogenesis: divergence at the paleoanthropine and Neanderthal stages.
- Adaptive significance of racial traits (pigmentation, nose shape, eyelid structure) to climate.
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