Fundamental Discoveries and Immunity
The main feature of this historical stage was the shift of researchers to the subcellular and molecular levels. Scientists were able to study in detail the molecular organization of bacteria and viruses, and determine the chemical composition and structure of their genomes. The exact spatial structure of microbial antigens, pathogenicity factors, and protective human antibodies was finally established.
A colossal leap occurred in fundamental immunology:
- The mechanisms of humoral defense factors were detailed: the complement system, interferons, and various cytokines.
- The receptor apparatus of immunocompetent cells (T and B lymphocytes, phagocytes) was studied, and the subtle mechanisms of their intercellular interaction were revealed.
- The molecular cascades of cell death processes, such as apoptosis and pyroptosis, were described in detail.
Genetic Engineering and Biologics Development
The accumulated knowledge of gene structure became the foundation for biotechnology. A key technology was the creation of recombinant DNA, which made it possible to construct recombinant producer strains—microorganisms programmed to synthesize compounds needed by humans. This enabled the mass production of biologically active substances: hormones, dietary proteins, interleukins, and pharmaceuticals (including anti-cancer drugs).
The approach to vaccine prophylaxis changed radically. A new generation of immunization products emerged:
- Genetically engineered vaccines (a classic example is the hepatitis B vaccine).
- Synthetic vaccines, which are a combination of isolated antigenic determinants with polymer carriers and adjuvants.
- Live vector vaccines.
Genodiagnostics and Immunogenetics
New diagnostic and therapeutic methods were actively integrated into clinical practice. A true revolution was the use of drugs based on highly specific monoclonal antibodies, as well as the application of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for ultra-precise genodiagnostics of infections.
In parallel, the field of immunogenetics emerged. Methods of genoprophylaxis were developed and the foundations for gene therapy of severe immunodeficiency states were laid. The use of immunomodulators in the treatment of both infectious and non-infectious pathologies received scientific justification.
Transplantology and Antimicrobial Therapy
Molecular biology discovered genetic tissue markers, which provided a powerful impetus to the development of transplantology and reproductive immunology. The Human Leukocyte Antigens (HLA) system—the major histocompatibility complex—was studied in depth. This made it possible to successfully resolve tissue incompatibility issues during donor organ transplantation and provided an understanding of the causes of immunological conflict in the maternal-fetal system.
Biotechnology progress also influenced the evolution of antimicrobial therapy. Methods of chemo- and antibiotic prophylaxis were significantly improved, and laboratories began to synthesize fundamentally new classes of antiviral and antibacterial drugs targeting specific molecular structures of pathogens.
Briefly: answers to topical questions
What types of cell death are studied in modern immunology?
Modern science studies accidental necrosis and regulated (programmed) types of cell death. The main types include:
- Necrosis—unregulated death in response to adverse factors.
- Apoptosis—a genetically controlled process occurring without the release of cellular contents and inflammation.
- Necroptosis—a genetically controlled process morphologically resembling necrosis.
- Ferroptosis—iron- and glutathione-dependent cell death associated with lipid peroxidation.
- Pyroptosis—cell death accompanied by pronounced inflammation.
What methods of infectious genodiagnostics are used in modern microbiology?
In modern microbiology, nucleic acid analysis methods are used for the genodiagnosis of infections. The main methods include:
- Polymerase chain reaction—used for screening and detecting the genetic material of viruses and bacteria.
- Nucleic acid molecular hybridization—detection of complementarity using a radioactive nuclide-labeled single-stranded probe.
- Gene sequencing—determination of the DNA nucleotide sequence (including 16S and 23S rRNA sequencing).
- Plasmid analysis and ribotyping.
- RFLP—restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis.
- Polymorphic DNA amplification.
Which molecular structures of bacteria and viruses serve as targets for modern antimicrobial drugs?
Transport systems and the synthesis processes of microbial structural components serve as targets for modern antimicrobial drugs. The following targets are distinguished:
- Transport stages—the transfer of substances across the membrane (e.g., transport of N-acetylglucosamine, which is blocked by vancomycin).
- Peptidoglycan synthesis process—disruption of bacterial cell wall assembly.
- Synthesis of viral proteins and proliferation—blocked by type I interferons.
Targets may also include structures that undergo modification during the development of antibiotic resistance.
For the treatment of which specific diseases are gene therapy methods being developed in immunogenetics?
Gene therapy methods are being developed primarily for the treatment of primary immunodeficiency states and oncological diseases. Specific pathologies include:
- Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)—correction of adenosine deaminase deficiency via transfection of the ADA gene into autologous bone marrow cells.
- X-linked SCID—transfer of the γ(c)-chain gene.
- Malignant tumors—transfer of cells transfected with cytokine genes into the body, with targeted delivery to tumor cells.
To remember the applied achievements of this period, use the acronym VADIM: V — Vaccines (recombinant), A — Antibodies (monoclonal), D — Diagnostics (PCR), I — Immunogenetics (HLA system), M — Modulators (interferons and cytokines).
Class and exam questions
To what level did research transition during this period?
The research focus shifted from the cellular and tissue levels to the subcellular and molecular levels. The main objects of study became microorganism genomes, antigen molecules, and immune system cell receptors.
What vaccines were developed at this stage?
Thanks to genetic engineering, a new generation of vaccines has emerged: recombinant (genetically engineered, e.g., against hepatitis B), live vector, and synthetic vaccines using polymer carriers.
What is the HLA system and why was it discovered?
The HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigens) system is the human histocompatibility antigen system. Its study is necessary for selecting donors, resolving graft rejection issues, and understanding conflicts between maternal and fetal immunity.
What role did the creation of recombinant DNA play?
The construction of recombinant DNA has made it possible to create producer strains—bacteria that synthesize medical proteins, hormones, interferons, and other drugs required in healthcare.
What else to study on this topic
- Structure and functions of the complement system and cytokines.
- Mechanisms of programmed cell death: apoptosis and pyroptosis.
- Principle of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method.
- Differences between recombinant, vector, and synthetic vaccines.
- Technology for producing monoclonal antibodies.
- Genetic basis of the maternal-fetal immunological conflict.
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