Two views on the nature of motivation and psychoanalysis
In fundamental science, two main vectors are distinguished in understanding human drives. The universal approach states that the deep desires of all people are identical. The individual approach insists that each person constructs their own unique system of priorities.
A striking example of the first direction is Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis. He believed that our actions are dictated by hidden, unconscious impulses. Freud identified two fundamental drives:
- The drive for pleasure (Eros). It is realized through nutrition, rest, affection, touch, and sexual release.
- The drive for destruction and death (Thanatos). Expressed through aggression, unjustified risk, and intentional harm to one's health (e.g., smoking or refusing to follow a diet).
According to this theory, even those actions that are imposed on us by high social ideals ultimately boil down either to the pursuit of pleasure or to self-destruction.
Physiology, behaviorism, and cognitive school
Physiologists and behaviorists see the main goal of human activity as the maintenance of homeostasis.
- P.K. Anokhin, in the theory of functional systems, explained the mechanism of this process. To achieve a result, a person consciously forms a plan of action. An image of the desired outcome—the action result acceptor—is created in their consciousness. As the plan is executed, intermediate steps are constantly compared with this image, which makes it possible to adjust behavior in case of an error.
- B.F. Skinner introduced the concept of operant behavior. This is activity for the sake of activity itself, without expecting a specific endpoint (for example, when a person aimlessly doodles on paper, hums, or taps their foot).
Cognitive psychology offers a different perspective: our actions are governed not by hidden drives, but by our own theories about the future. A person acts based on the expected result. Even if their hypothesis is objectively incorrect, behavior will not change until the forecast finally collapses in a clash with reality.
Humanistic psychology and Maslow's pyramid
The humanistic school (C. Rogers, A. Maslow) strongly opposes Freud's psychoanalysis. Here it is believed that true pleasure comes from self-actualization, creativity, and acquiring new knowledge, rather than simple physiological release. Meeting basic needs is viewed merely as a necessary foundation for further spiritual growth.
A. Maslow proposed a hierarchical model in which needs are arranged from lowest to highest:
- Physiological needs.
- Safety.
- Love and belonging.
- Esteem.
- Self-actualization.
If basic levels are not met (amid wars, poverty, loneliness, or fierce social competition), the path to the top of the pyramid becomes overly complicated.
The Russian approach: P.V. Simonov's classification
P.V. Simonov divided motives into three groups: biological, social, and ideal (spiritual). He introduced an important division by directional vector:
- Egocentric (for oneself): in the process of satisfying them, others are perceived as competitors or enemies.
- Altruistic (for others): other people are seen as helpers and associates.
Simonov also distinguished preservation needs (relief from fear, hunger, anxiety) and growth needs. The latter require the exertion of will, overcoming environmental resistance for the sake of future positive emotions. From a clinical standpoint, if a person refuses spiritual growth, their life fills with monotony and thoughts about its meaninglessness, which is a direct path to emotional burnout syndrome.
Murray's system and its clinical significance
H.A. Murray compiled a detailed list of drives, dividing them into reactive (response to the external environment) and proactive (originating from within). By type of activity, he distinguished effect motives (a final result is needed), process motives (the process itself is important), and modal motives (high quality of execution is important, e.g., agility and refined movements).
Murray's list includes many polar drives: from the search for connection (affiliation), care, and support to aggression, defense, dominance, and even the desire for self-abasement (seeking pain or the joy of submission).
For a medical worker, understanding that every patient possesses their own unique internal hierarchy is critically important. The physician must avoid the illusion that their personal priorities automatically suit the patient. Only by showing tolerance and respect for the patient's true needs can a productive partnership be built.
Briefly: answers to topical questions
What are the mechanisms of formation and reinforcement of operant behavior according to B.F. Skinner?
The mechanism of operant behavior formation consists of combining spontaneous action with subsequent reward. Operants are actions arising from the organism's internal needs (for movement, touch, vocalization), which are initially expressed in activity without expecting a specific result. The consolidation of such behavior occurs when the action receives positive reinforcement, leading to a higher frequency of its repetition in the future.
What are the main types of memory distinguished in psychiatry by the duration of information retention?
By the duration of information retention, three main types of memory are distinguished:
- Short-term memory — retains information from several seconds to several minutes after its arrival, based on rapidly formed temporary connections.
- Intermediate memory — ensures the retention of information for several minutes or hours (e.g., formulating thoughts during a conversation).
- Long-term memory — is not limited in capacity and duration of memory trace retention, representing durable connections.
Which anatomical structures of the brain form the Papez circuit involved in memory consolidation?
The Papez circuit is a closed pathway of excitation circulation, including the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus, the thalamus, the hippocampus, the entorhinal cortex, and the septal nuclei. The hippocampus is critically important for learning and memory processes, and damage to structures within the Papez circuit disrupts the encoding of information and its transfer from short-term to long-term memory.
What clinical manifestations are characteristic of fixation amnesia in Korsakoff's syndrome?
Fixation amnesia in Korsakoff's syndrome is characterized by a sharp decrease or complete loss of the ability to fixate new information in long-term memory while short-term memory remains intact. Clinical manifestations include:
- Amnestic disorientation — a gross impairment of orientation in new situations, including time and place.
- Confabulations and pseudoreminiscences — filling memory gaps with fabrication or temporally displaced real events.
- Incomplete insight — patients formally acknowledge memory impairment, but do not experience it emotionally.
At the same time, intelligence, professional skills, and memory for events preceding the illness remain relatively intact. Patients are recognized as disabled.
Class and exam questions
What is operant behavior according to Skinner?
This is a type of activity carried out without the expectation of a specific result. Examples include a purposeless walk, humming a tune, or tapping fingers on a table.
What causes emotional burnout according to Simonov's theory?
It arises from a person's rejection of growth needs. This leads to a sense of monotony, boredom, and thoughts about the meaninglessness of one's own life.
What is the main difference between the cognitive approach and psychoanalysis?
In psychoanalysis, it is believed that a person is driven by unconscious past drives (Eros and Thanatos). Cognitive psychology argues that behavior is dictated by future-directed forecasts and thoughts.
What else to study on this topic
- Mechanisms of action of the action result acceptor in P.K. Anokhin's theory.
- A detailed analysis of modal and process needs according to H.A. Murray.
- The impact of a rigidly structured hierarchy of motives on choice during competing drives.
- Clinical examples of self-destructive tendencies (Thanatos) in medical practice.
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