Place in science and interdisciplinary status
Biotechnology is recognized as a leading discipline that sets the vector for the development of medicine for the coming decades. Historically, it was formed within microbiology and is a direct evolutionary continuation of "technical microbiology". That is why the fundamentals of biotechnology are traditionally studied in departments of microbiology and immunology.
The founder of this field is rightly considered to be Louis Pasteur, whose discovery of the enzymatic nature of fermentation laid the foundation for controlling the vital activity of microorganisms.
Modern biotechnology is a strictly integrative field of knowledge. It has emerged and successfully developed at the intersection of several major disciplines:
- Microbiology;
- Molecular biology and genetic engineering;
- Immunology;
- Chemical technology.
Essence, prerequisites, and goals
According to the definition of Academician A.A. Vorobiev, the fundamental basis of biotechnology is the study of the life processes of organisms. The main prerequisite for the rapid development of this science was the acute need of society for fundamentally new technologies, as well as the need to reduce the cost of products for the national economy, medicine, and veterinary medicine.
Global goals of biotechnology:
- Industrial production of target products from biological objects or with their direct application.
- Replication of specific biological effects, including those not found in the natural environment.
Biological objects of production
To achieve these goals, biotechnologists use various forms of life. Most often, single-celled microorganisms serve as the main object. Isolated animal and plant cells are also actively used. Whole animal organs or intact plants are involved in the production process much less frequently.
The choice of cellular structures as a production base is not accidental. Cells function as miniature "biofactories". They are capable of synthesizing a colossal range of valuable substances whose production by other (non-biotechnological) methods is currently impossible. These substances include:
- Proteins, fats, and carbohydrates;
- Amino acids and vitamins;
- Antibiotics;
- Hormones and enzymes;
- Antibodies.
Advantages and economic efficiency
In addition to unique synthetic capabilities, the choice of microorganisms and cells is driven by their high reproduction rate. This allows for an incredibly rapid increase in biomass on a huge industrial scale.
| Cell type | Division rate (doubling time) |
|---|---|
| Bacterial cell | 20–60 minutes |
| Yeast cell | 1.5–2 hours |
| Animal cell | 24 hours |
The third key factor is economic efficiency. Biological synthesis of complex structures (such as antigens, antibiotics, proteins) is significantly cheaper and more technologically accessible than their artificial chemical synthesis.
A huge advantage is the raw material base used. Biotechnology uses cheap, readily available, and non-deficit raw materials. Often these are waste products from the food, fish, and agricultural industries: molasses, wood, yeast, and fish meal. This makes biotechnological production not only economically profitable but also ecologically sound.
Briefly: answers to topical questions
What types of microorganisms are the main industrial producers of antibiotics?
The main industrial producers of antibiotics are actinomycetes, molds, and typical bacteria.
- Actinomycetes (genus Streptomyces) are branching bacteria that serve as a source of about 80% of natural antibiotics.
- Molds (genera Cephalosporium, Penicillium) synthesize natural beta-lactams and fusidic acid.
- Typical bacteria (eubacteria, bacilli, pseudomonads) produce polypeptide antibiotics such as bacitracin and polymyxins.
What recombinant human hormones are obtained by genetic engineering methods?
Recombinant hormones obtained by genetic engineering include insulin and growth hormone (somatotropin).
- Human insulin is the first protein produced by recombinant DNA technology for the treatment of diabetes mellitus; it causes significantly fewer side effects compared to animal pancreatic extracts.
- Growth hormone is synthesized by a similar method.
The main industrial producer for obtaining these hormones is E. coli (Escherichia coli).
What methods are used to create highly productive producer strains?
To create recombinant producer strains, recombinant DNA technology is used: isolation of the vector and target DNA, their cleavage with restriction enzymes, ligation of fragments, and introduction of recombinant DNA into the host cell (transformation). Sources also describe induced mutations arising under the action of physical and chemical mutagens, such as UV radiation.
What stages does hybridoma technology for producing monoclonal antibodies include?
Hybridoma technology for producing monoclonal antibodies includes the stages of cell fusion and their subsequent cultivation.
- Cell fusion — combining immune B-lymphocytes (donors of specific antibody synthesis) and myeloma tumor cells (donors of infinite division properties) in the presence of polyethylene glycol.
- Hybridoma formation — obtaining a hybrid cell that inherits specificity from the lymphocyte and the ability to divide indefinitely from the myeloma.
- Cultivation — propagation of hybridomas in vitro (in cell culture) or in vivo (in the mouse peritoneal cavity with accumulation in ascites fluid).
What medical enzyme preparations are produced biotechnologically?
Fibrinolytic enzyme preparations based on urokinase are produced biotechnologically.
- Urokinase (Urokinase) is an enzyme obtained from a culture of human embryonic kidney cells; it is used for direct plasminogen activation in myocardial infarction and thrombosis.
- Saruplase (Saruplase) is a recombinant single-chain urokinase (prourokinase) preparation characterized by higher specificity for thrombus fibrin.
The sources do not describe biotechnological production methods for other medical enzymes (trypsin, nucleases, hyaluronidase, and asparaginase).
To memorize biomass growth rates, use the «minutes to days» rule: bacteria divide in minutes (20–60), yeasts in hours (1.5–2), while animal cells take a full day (24 h).
Class and exam questions
Why is Louis Pasteur considered the founder of biotechnology?
Pasteur discovered the enzymatic nature of fermentation, which for the first time proved the feasibility of using the vital activity of microorganisms to obtain target products.
Which organisms are the main object of biotechnology?
Single-celled microorganisms are the primary objects, as they possess the highest reproduction rate and are capable of synthesizing many complex substances.
What is the economic advantage of biosynthesis?
Biosynthesis is technologically simpler than chemical synthesis and allows the use of extremely cheap raw materials—industrial and agricultural waste such as molasses, fish meal, and wood.
What else to study on this topic
- Mechanisms of cellular synthesis of antibiotics and enzymes
- Application of genetic engineering for strain modification
- Equipment and technologies for industrial biomass cultivation
- Specifics of using animal and plant cells in biomanufacturing
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