Lexicography and the Petrine Era
At the very beginning of the eighteenth century, the process of active formation of the Russian literary language began. A major milestone was the lexicographical work of Fedor Polikarpov-Orlov, a graduate of the Slavic Greek Latin Academy. In 1704, his large-scale work titled "Trilingual Lexicon, that is, the Treasury of Slavic, Hellenic-Greek, and Latin Utterances..." was published. This dictionary was intended primarily for educational purposes, or, as they said back then, "for the common good."
The work included about twenty thousand dictionary entries. Notably, the dictionary featured a significant medical component: it recorded the names of various diseases, clinical symptoms, surgical interventions, surgical instruments, treatment methods, and anatomical structures.
During the era of Peter the Great and throughout the century, the Russian language rapidly absorbed hundreds of scientific Latinisms. These words were borrowed in two main ways: either directly from Latin medical writings or indirectly through Western European languages. It was at that time that such familiar terms as medik (medic), medikament (medication), meditsina (medicine), mikstura (mixture), piliuli (pills), provizor (pharmacist), and retsept (prescription) became widespread. An interesting example of adaptation is the word "sangva", formed from the Latin sanguis — blood.
The contribution of M. V. Lomonosov and Moscow University
Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov played a huge role in the development of the language of science. As a graduate of the Slavic Greek Latin Academy and a brilliant expert in classical languages, he was considered one of the best Latinists in Europe of his time. It was Lomonosov who substantiated the basic principles and developed the foundations of Russian scientific terminology. He invariably emphasized the colossal importance of Latin for education and the overall progress of the scientific language in Russia.
According to Lomonosov's plan and initiative, Moscow University was founded in 1755. A faculty of medicine was immediately established within it to train domestic personnel. The University Charter imposed strict requirements on future doctors. Students were expected not only to know the course of liberal arts but also to be fluent in Latin. Furthermore, both oral and written fluency in the language was required so that specialists could "express themselves intelligibly" on professional topics.
Introduction of terms in the mid-18th century
By the middle of the eighteenth century, foreign terms poured in a powerful stream into the Russian language, the vast majority of which are still actively used in clinical practice today.
- Anatomy and physiology: vena (vein), muskul (muscle), nerv (nerve), puls (pulse), retina, fibra (in the sense of "tendon"), urina (urine), and temperament.
- Pathology and symptoms: abscess, angina, contuziya (contusion), retsidiv (relapse), skorbut (also known as scurvy), fistula, and febra (fever).
- Clinical practice and instruments: ampula (ampoule), amputatsiya (amputation), konsilium (medical council), okulist (ophthalmologist), patsient (patient), prosektor (prosector), respiratsiya (respiration), sektsiya (autopsy), and skalpel (scalpel).
As a general systemic concept, the word konstitutsiya (constitution) entered the professional lexicon.
The feat of physician-translators and the works of A. P. Protasov
The teaching of medicine in Russia faced an acute problem: a catastrophic shortage of developed Russian medical terminology necessary for the full training of students. To solve this task, teachers of medical educational institutions performed truly titanic work in translating and adapting foreign vocabulary. They laid the groundwork for domestic scientific terminology, overcoming immense difficulties in conveying abstract concepts and Western European terms (including classicisms and neoclassicism) using their native language.
Alexander Petrovich Protasov, the first Russian academician and professor of anatomy at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, played a significant role in this historical process. While still a student, he translated an anatomical atlas from German. This work became the first work on anatomy published in the Russian language.
Protasov laid the solid foundations of scientific anatomical terminology through his translations. In addition, he took a very active part in the creation of the fundamental "Dictionary of the Russian Academy", where he professionally engaged in the interpretation of anatomical terms and "words denoting diseases".
Briefly: answers to topical questions
Through which specific Western European intermediary languages were medical Latinisms most often borrowed in the 18th century?
Medical Latinisms and other borrowings penetrated the Russian language through a number of Western European intermediary languages. In the 18th century, the enrichment of the scientific Russian language occurred due to the following languages:
- Polish language — a source of renewal of the lexical structure.
- French language — an intermediary language for new terminology.
- Dutch language — an intermediary language for borrowings.
- Italian language — one of the Western European languages that enriched the Russian language.
- English language — acted primarily as an intermediary language for terms of Greco-Latin origin.
- German language — a source of borrowings indicated by the presence of the sound [sh], which is uncharacteristic of classical languages.
Determining the specific primary source language is often difficult because terms appeared almost simultaneously in several languages.
Which dictionaries played a key role in the formation of Russian medical terminology in the 18th century?
Sources mention the following works:
- The "Trilingual Lexicon..." by F. P. Polikarpov-Orlov, published in 1704. It was intended for educational purposes and contained a significant layer of medical terminology, including the names of diseases, symptoms, surgical interventions, surgical instruments, treatment methods, and anatomical structures.
- The "Dictionary of the Russian Academy", in the creation of which A. P. Protasov took an active part; he was engaged in the interpretation of anatomical terms and disease names.
Class and exam questions
Why did 18th-century medical students need fluency in Latin?
According to the Charter of Moscow University, knowledge of Latin (orally and in writing) was necessary so that future doctors could "express themselves intelligibly" on professional topics and master scientific literature.
Which work became the first publication on anatomy in the Russian language?
The first work was an anatomical atlas translated from German by A. P. Protasov during his student years.
How did Latin terms enter the Russian language during the Petrine era?
Medical terms were borrowed in two ways: either directly from original Latin writings or indirectly through Western European languages.
What else to study on this topic
- Structure and significance of the "Trilingual Lexicon" by F. P. Polikarpov-Orlov
- Principles of Russian scientific terminology developed by M. V. Lomonosov
- Difficulties of adapting classicisms and neoclassicisms in the 18th-century Russian language
- A. P. Protasov's contribution to the creation of the "Dictionary of the Russian Academy"
- Evolution of anatomical nomenclature in Russia (18th–19th centuries)
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Other topics from the section "From the History of the Physician's Professional Language"
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