Bones of the upper limb and pectoral girdle
The study of osteology often begins with the skeleton of the upper limb, or limb (membrum). The pectoral girdle (cingulum) is formed by the clavicle (clavicula) and the scapula (scapula). From these nouns, the corresponding adjectives are naturally derived: clavicular (clavicularis) and scapular (scapularis).
An important anatomical landmark on the scapula is the acromion (acromion), which gives rise to the acromial (acromialis) border or process. The free upper limb includes:
- The arm (brachium) and the humerus (humĕrus). Note that the adjective "brachial" is brachialis.
- The bones of the forearm: the radius (radius) and the ulna (ulna). Their corresponding adjectives are radial (radialis) and ulnar (ulnaris).
- The specific olecranon process has a separate name — olecrănon.
Bones of the trunk, skull, and neck
In the skeleton of the trunk, a crucial role is played by ribs (costa), which form the costal (costalis) margin or joint. Everything related to the chest is denoted by the term thoracic (thoracicus). In the lower part of the spine lies the coccyx (coccyx), giving rise to the coccygeal (coccygéus) region.
In the head and neck region, the structures of the facial skeleton are distinguished:
- Maxilla (maxilla) — maxillary (maxillaris).
- Mandible (mandibula) — mandibular (mandibularis).
Among other important topographical landmarks of this zone, the terms jugular (jugularis) and pharyngeal (pharyngeus) are also found.
General terms: joints and prominent elements
Bones connect to each other, forming a joint (articulatio). The surfaces participating in the articulation are called articular (articularis) surfaces. Externally, bone tissue is covered by a special membrane — the periosteum (periosteum).
The surface of a bone is rarely perfectly smooth. For the attachment of tendons and ligaments, there are projecting surface landmarks:
- Process (processus) — a general term for large projections.
- Condyle (condўlus) — a thickening or projection at the end of a bone, often bearing an articular surface.
- Tuberosity (tuber) — a large, rough elevation.
- Tubercle (tuberculum) — a smaller elevation.
Also, the spatial term transverse (transversus) is frequently used to describe the arrangement of structures.
Foramina, depressions, and notches
Bones feature pathways for the passage of blood vessels and nerve trunks, as well as sites for articulation with other bones. In Latin nomenclature, they are classified by shape and depth:
- Foramen (forāmen) — a through-hole in a bone.
- Canal (canālis) — a tubular passage within bone tissue.
- Fissure (fissura) — a narrow, elongated opening.
- Notch (incisura) — a depression on the margin of a bone.
- Fossa/fovea — a blind depression on the surface. If it is elongated, the term fossa is used, and if it is round and small, fovea.
Briefly: answers to topical questions
What structures pass through the jugular foramen (foramen jugulare)?
The glossopharyngeal, vagus, and accessory nerves pass through the jugular foramen (foramen jugulare).
- Glossopharyngeal nerve (n. glossopharyngeus, cranial nerve IX) — exits the skull through the jugular foramen; its superior and inferior ganglia are located in the region of the foramen.
- Vagus nerve (n. vagus, cranial nerve X) — passes through the jugular foramen; its sensory ganglia are located in this area.
- Accessory nerve (n. accessorius, cranial nerve XI) — exits the skull through the jugular foramen.
What processes are distinguished on the ulna?
Three main processes are distinguished on the ulna (ulna), located at its proximal and distal ends.
- Olecranon process (olecranon) — a large process on the proximal epiphysis, directed upward.
- Coronoid process (processus coronoideus) — located on the proximal epiphysis; during flexion, it enters the coronoid fossa of the humerus.
- Styloid process (processus styloideus) — a thin and sharp process located on the distal epiphysis of the bone, directed downward.
What anatomical structures are located on the distal epiphysis of the humerus?
Articular surfaces, fossae, and epicondyles are located on the distal epiphysis of the humerus (humerus). The main anatomical structures include:
- Condyle of the humerus (condylus humeri) — includes the medially located trochlea (trochlea humeri) and the lateral capitulum (capitulum humeri).
- Epicondyles — the medial (epicondylus medialis) with the groove for the ulnar nerve (sulcus nervi ulnaris) on its posterior surface, and the lateral (epicondylus lateralis). Supracondylar ridges of the same name extend from them.
- Fossae — anteriorly, there are the coronoid (fossa coronoidea) and radial (fossa radialis) fossae, and posteriorly, the olecranon fossa (fossa olecrani).
Which bones make up the facial skeleton?
The facial skeleton (viscerocranium) consists of paired and unpaired bones that form the bony framework of the face.
- Paired bones:
- Maxilla (maxilla)
- Inferior nasal concha (concha nasalis inferior)
- Lacrimal bone (os lacrimale)
- Nasal bone (os nasale)
- Zygomatic bone (os zygomaticum)
- Palatine bone (os palatinum)
- Unpaired bones:
- Mandible (mandibula)
- Hyoid bone (os hyoideum)
- Vomer (vomer)
Which branches arise from the maxillary artery (arteria maxillaris)?
The artery of the pterygoid canal arises from the maxillary artery (a. maxillaris).
- Artery of the pterygoid canal (a. canalis pterygoidei) passes through the canal of the same name into the pterygopalatine fossa.
The maxillary artery itself enters the pterygopalatine fossa through the pterygomaxillary fissure. Other vessels (infraorbital, descending palatine, and sphenopalatine arteries) are also located in this fossa, but their direct origin from the maxillary artery is not described in the text.
For quick memorization of adjectives, pay attention to suffixes: adding -alis or -aris to a noun root forms an attribute (e.g., ulna → ulnaris, costa → costalis).
Class and exam questions
What is the anatomical difference between a fossa and a fovea?
Both terms translate into English as "fossa". However, in Latin terminology, fossa is used to describe elongated or more extensive depressions, whereas fovea denotes a small, rounded depression.
What is the correct term for the olecranon?
There is a specialized term for the olecranon — olecrănon. It should not be confused with the general word processus, which denotes any other bone process.
How to form an adjective from the word "arm"?
The adjective brachialis (brachial) is formed from the Latin noun brachium (arm).
What else to study on this topic
- Structure of long bones of the upper limb
- Anatomical landmarks of the scapula and clavicle
- Classification of bone depressions and foramina
- Types of processes and tubercles on bone surfaces
- Joint formation and the role of condyles
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