9 topics with a brief review: definitions, key facts, and classroom questions.
The endocrine system is the humoral regulator of body functions. In this section, we cover the anatomy of the endocrine glands: their topography, macroscopic and microscopic structure, as well as the specifics of their blood supply and innervation.
You will study the general principles of the organization of endocrine apparatuses and the detailed structure of each organ. The section includes materials on the thyroid, parathyroid, and thymus glands, the endocrine part of the pancreas, the adrenal glands, and paraganglia. The anatomy of the central glands—the pituitary gland and the pineal gland—is covered separately.
During credit tests and exams, instructors most frequently ask about the syntopy of the thyroid gland (especially its relation to the recurrent laryngeal nerve), the lobes and portal blood flow system of the pituitary gland, and the zonation of the adrenal cortex. Pay special attention to the sources of blood supply—this is a classic "pitfall" in final classes on splanchnology.
What is the main anatomical difference between endocrine and exocrine glands?
Endocrine glands completely lack excretory ducts. They secrete their products directly into blood (venous) or lymphatic capillaries.
Are the right and left lobes always connected to each other?
No, not always. The isthmus of the thyroid gland may be absent, in which case the right and left lobes lie side by side without being connected by a tissue bridge.
Where should one look for the superior pair of parathyroid glands?
The superior glands (glandulae parathyroideae superiores) should be sought at the level of the lower margin of the cricoid cartilage, at the border of the upper and middle thirds of the posteromedial surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland.
What lobes does the thymus gland consist of?
Normally, it consists of two asymmetric lobes—right and left, connected by loose connective tissue. Intercalated lobes are less common, increasing their total number to three or four.
From which embryonic germ layer does the endocrine portion of the pancreas develop?
Pancreatic islets, like the organ as a whole, are derivatives of the endoderm and develop from the glandular epithelium of the duodenum.
What is the anatomical difference between the right and left adrenal glands?
The right adrenal gland has a triangular shape and is located higher, whereas the left is semilunar and partially adjacent to the medial margin of the superior pole of the kidney.
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